Back Contact Perovskite Solar Cell

ABSTRACT

A method is provided for forming a back contact perovskite solar cell. A substrate is coated with a positive electrode layer. The positive electrode layer is then conformally coated with a first insulator. A plurality of negative electrode segments are selectively deposited overlying the first insulator layer, and a second insulator layer is conformally deposited overlying the negative electrode segments and first insulator layer. The second insulator layer is selectively etched to expose the negative electrode segments, and an n-type semiconductor is selectively deposited overlying each exposed negative electrode segment to form n-type contacts. The first and second insulator layers are then selectively etched to expose positive electrode segments. A p-type semiconductor is selectively deposited over each exposed positive electrode segment to form p-type contacts. Finally, a hybrid organic/inorganic perovskite (e.g., CH 3 NH 3 Pbl 3-X Cl X ) layer is conformally deposited overlying the p-type and n-type contacts. A back contact solar cell is also provided.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a Continuation-in-part of a patent applicationentitled, MESOPOROUS STRUCTURE SOLAR CELL WITH SILOXANE BARRIER,invented by Alexey Koposov et al., Ser. No. 14/320,702, filed Jul. 1,2014, attorney docket No. SLA3390;

This application is a Continuation-in-part of a parent applicationentitled, PLANAR STRUCTURE SOLAR CELL WITH INORGANIC HOLE TRANSPORTINGMATERIAL, invented by Alexey Koposov et al., Ser. No. 14/320,691, filedJul. 1, 2014, attorney docket No. SLA3386.

which is a Continuation-in-part of a patent application entitled,SURFACE-PASSIVATED MESOPOROUS STRUCTURE SOLAR CELL, invented byChangqing Zhan et al., Ser. No. 14/320,488, filed Jun. 30, 2014,attorney docket No. SLA3383. All these applications are incorporatedherein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

This invention generally relates to solar cells and, more particularly,to a back contact solar cell using a hybrid organic/inorganic perovskitematerial.

2. Description of the Related Art

Solar cells based on a combination of organic and inorganic (i.e.organic/inorganic) perovskite materials represent a recent breakthroughin the modern solar cells technology. They have shown a promising powerconversion efficiency (PCE) of above 18% in several lab scale cells,using a cost-effective fabrication process and a simple cell structure.In theory, a further improvement of the PCE to 25% is possible, makingthe perovskite solar cell a desirable technology with a lower cost andhigher performance than many other photovoltaic technologies.

FIGS. 1A and 1B are, respectively, mesoporous and planar structureperovskite solar cells (prior art). In general, to achieve appreciablepower conversion efficiencies (PCEs) two possible architectures havebeen adopted for the perovskite materials. The first is a dye-sensitizedsolar cell (DSC)-style device that comprises: a mesoporoussemiconducting metal oxide 106 (e.g., titanium oxide (TiO₂)); aperovskite material 108; an organic hole transporting redox material(HIM) 110 to transport positive charges (holes) from the perovskite tothe counter electrode; and a gold (Au) or platinum (Pt) counterelectrode 112, see FIG. 1A. The planar heterojunction-type device ofFIG. 1B has a planar wide band gap n-type semiconductor material 104,such as TiO₂, ZnO, etc., on a transparent conductive electrode such asfluorine-doped tin oxide (SnO₂:F) (i.e. FTO) or indium tin oxide (ITO),on glass substrate 102, a directly deposited perovskite material 508 onthe planar n-type semiconductor 104 as the light absorber layer; anorganic HTM 110 on top of the absorber layer 508, and a counterelectrode layer 112. CH₃NH₃Pbl_(3-X)Cl_(X) is one example of aperovskite.

Overall, the organic/inorganic perovskite material based solar cellcombines the technical merits of both the solid-state dye-sensitizedsolar cell (ssDSC) and the thin film solar cell (TFSC), and representsthe trend of solar cell development in recent years. However, thearchitecture of a perovskite based solar cell is limited by the use ofan organic hole transporting material. Other types of cellarchitectures, such as the Schotty-type, without a hole-transportingmaterial, result in diminished performance. Besides2,2′,7,7′-tetrakis(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9′-spirobifluorene(Spiro-OMe-TAD) as the HTM, several other organic alternatives(P3HT:PSS, for instance) have been suggested. The use of Spiro-OMe-TADas the hole extraction material provides simplicity in deposition,tolerance to the non-smooth interfaces, and most importantly, it iscompatible with the perovskite material, as there are no chemicalreactions. However, the use of an organic HTM can significantly restrictthe application of this technology due to its relatively low long-termstability and sensitivity to moisture. Thus, a stable inorganic HTM withcomparable or better properties than Spiro-OMe-TAD is needed. CuSCN hasbeen reported in the literature as the only inorganic HTM used in asensitized architecture, yielding about 6% PCE.

An alternative to the conventional cell architecture is presented inparent application Ser. No. 14/320,691, using a wide bandgap p-typesemiconductor, such as the oxides of molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten ornickel, as the hole extraction layer (functions as an electron blockinglayer) to replace the organic HTM. With a proper p-type wide bandgapoxide semiconductor, this cell structure performs similarly to most thinfilm solar cell structures, such as (CuIn_(x)(Ga_((1-x))Se₂) (i.e. CIGS)or copper zinc tin sulfide (CZTS). Furthermore, inorganic wide bandgapoxide semiconductors provide better cell stability and moistureresistance, as compared to organic HTM cell. However, such a cellstructure still requires the deposition of the selected wide bandgapoxide semiconductor over the perovskite. In many cases, the formation ofa metal oxide with the proper crystalline structure requires a hightemperature treatment, at which the hybrid perovskite materials are notthermally stable. Thus, perovskite layer applies restrictions in theselection of a p-type semiconductor material, as well as formationmethod.

It would be advantageous if a hybrid organic/inorganic perovskite solarcell could be fabricated with the advantages of back contacts, andwithout the disadvantages of using an organic HMI material.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein is a new cell architecture that takes full advantage ofthe material properties of hybrid organic/inorganic perovskite. Hybridorganic/inorganic perovskite (i.e. a perovskite comprised of bothorganic and inorganic materials) performs well as an (optical) absorbermaterial, but also exhibits high carrier mobility. In fact, a mixediodide/chloride of hybrid perovskite has demonstrated extremely highmobilities for both carriers with a diffusion length approaching about 1micron. The long carrier diffusion length permits the perovskite solarcell to be enabled in a backside contacting architecture by placing bothn- and p-type semiconductors under the absorber (perovskite) layer.Thus, the n- and p-type semiconductors, which respectively function ashole and electron blocking layers, can establish an internal field forcharge separation and collection, as long as they are physically closeenough, i.e. in the range of the carrier diffusion length for theperovskite. This architecture provides several advantages for furtherimprovement in perovskite solar cell performance and stability. Sincethe n- and p-type semiconductors can be formed prior to perovskitedeposition, any restriction on the selection of semiconductor materialsand deposition means is removed. Secondly, there are no significant postperovskite processes. Therefore, the integrity of perovskite remains thesame as following its deposition. Thirdly, in such a backsidearchitecture there are no top electrode and metal grids to blockincident light and the fill factor is thus improved, resulting in higherphoto currents. Overall, a high photo-conversion efficiency results.

Accordingly, a method is provided for forming a back contact perovskitesolar cell. The method provides a substrate, and conformally coats thesubstrate with a positive electrode layer. The positive electrode layeris then conformally coated with a first insulator layer. A plurality ofnegative electrode segments are selectively deposited overlying thefirst insulator layer, and a second insulator layer is conformallydeposited overlying the negative electrode segments and first insulatorlayer. The second insulator layer is selectively etched to expose thenegative electrode segments, and an n-type semiconductor is selectivelydeposited overlying each exposed negative electrode segment to formn-type contacts. The first and second insulator layers are thenselectively etched. (between the n-type contacts) to expose positiveelectrode segments. A p-type semiconductor is selectively deposited overeach exposed positive electrode segment to form p-type contacts.Finally, a hybrid organic/inorganic perovskite (e.g.,CH₃NH₃Pbl_(3-X)Cl_(X)) layer is conformally deposited overlying thep-type and n-type contacts.

Some examples of the n-type semiconductor include zinc oxide (ZnO), tinoxide (SnO₂), niobium oxide (Nb₂O₅), tantalum oxide (Ta₂O₅), bariumtitanate (BaTiO₃), strontium titanate (SrTiO₃), zinc titanate (ZnTiO₃),and copper titanate (CuTiO₃), and titanium oxide (TiO₂). Some examplesof the p-type semiconductor include stoichiometric oxides andnon-stoichiometric oxides, such as molybdenum oxide (MoO₃), nickel oxide(NiO), vanadium oxide (V₂O₅), copper(I), oxide (Cu₂O), and tungstenoxide (WO₃).

Alternatively, the solar cell can be fabricated by initially coating thesubstrate with a negative electrode layer, and the deposition of theabove-mentioned electrode and doped semiconductor materials isessentially reversed.

Additional details of the above-described methods and a back contactperovskite solar cell are presented below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B are, respectively, mesoporous and planar structureperovskite solar cells (prior art).

FIG. 2 is a partial cross-sectional view of a back contact perovskitesolar cell.

FIG. 3 is a partial cross-sectional view of a first variation of thesolar cell of FIG. 2.

FIG. 4 is a partial cross-sectional view of a second variation of thesolar cell of FIG. 2.

FIGS. 5A through 5E are cross-sectional views depicting an exemplaryfabrication process associated with the solar cell of FIG. 3.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a first method for forming a backcontact perovskite solar cell.

FIG. 7 is a flowchart illustrating a second method for forming a backcontact perovskite solar cell.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

FIG. 2 is a partial cross-sectional view of a back contact perovskitesolar cell. The solar cell 200 comprises a substrate 202 with aplurality of p-type contacts 204 overlying the substrate. Forsimplicity, only one p-type contact 204 is shown. Each p-type contact204 comprises a positive electrode 206 and a p-type semiconductorsegment 208 overlying the positive electrode 206. A plurality of n-typecontacts 210 also overlies the substrate 202. Again, for simplicity,only one n-type contact 210 is shown. Each n-type contact 210 comprisesa negative electrode 212 and an n-type semiconductor segment 214overlying the negative electrode. A hybrid organic/inorganic perovskitelayer 216 overlies the p-type contacts 204 and n-type contacts 210.

In such a cell 200, the absorption of photons by the hybrid perovskitematerial 216 is followed by the formation and dissociation of excitons.The separated charges move towards the contact areas, as the nature ofthe n- and p-type semiconductors 214 and 208 enhances the chargeseparation. For example, an electron is selectively injected. into then-type semiconductor 214 (e.g., ZnO or TiO₂), while the positive charges(holes) are injected into p-type semiconductor 208 (e.g., MoOx NiO, V₂O₅or WO₃), where the charges are then extracted.

Some examples of the n-type semiconductor 214 include zinc oxide (ZnO),tin oxide (SnO₂), niobium oxide (Nb₂O₅), tantalum oxide (Ta₂O₅), bariumtitanate (BaTiO₃), strontium titanate (SrTiO₃), zinc titanate (ZnTiO₃),and copper titanate (CuTiO₃), and titanium oxide (TiO₂). The p-typesemiconductor 208 may be a stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric oxide,some examples of which include molybdenum oxide (MoO₃), nickel oxide(NiO), vanadium oxide (V₂O₅), copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O), and tungsten oxide(WO₃). The negative electrode 212 may be Zn, aluminum (Al), or Ti. Thepositive electrode 206 may be Mo or Ni. Note: this is not an exhaustivelist of possible materials.

The hybrid organic/inorganic perovskite layer 216 has the generalformula of ABX_(z)Y_(3-z);

where “A” is an organic monocation;

where B is a transition metal dication;

where X and Y are inorganic monoanions; and,

where Z is in the range of 0 to 1.5.

In one aspect, the organic monocation “A” is a substituted ammoniumcation with the general formula of R¹R²R³R⁴N;

where R is hydrogen, or a compound derived from linear alkanes, branchedalkanes, cycloalkanes, (poly)cycloalkanes, cis- and trans-linearalkenes, cis- and trans-branched alkenes, linear alkynes, branchedalkynes, (poly)alkynes, aromatic hydrocarbons, (poly)aromatichydrocarbons, heteroarenes, (poly)heteroarenes, thiophenes,(poly)thiophenes, (poly)anilines, or combination of above-mentionedelements;

where the dication B is Pb²⁺, Sn²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ge²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ni²⁺, Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺,Eu²⁺, or Co²⁺; and,

wherein the monoanions X and Y are independently selected (may be thesame or different) from a group including halogenides of F—, Cl—, Br—,and I—, cyanides, and thiocyanides. For example, the hybridorganic/inorganic perovskite 216 may be (iodide/chloride)CH₃NH₃Pbl_(3-X)Cl_(X).

FIG. 3 is a partial cross-sectional view of a first variation of thesolar cell of FIG. 2. In this aspect, the positive electrode 206 is alayer conformally coating and in immediate contact with the substrate202. Each n-type contact 210 negative electrode is a negative electrodesegment 212. Each n-type contact 210 further comprises an insulatorsegment 300 interposed between the positive electrode layer 206 and thenegative electrode segment 212. Each n-type contact 210 furthercomprises insulator sidewalls 302 overlying each insulator segment 300,with the negative electrode segments 212 and the n-type semiconductorsegments 214 formed between the insulator sidewalls 302.

FIG. 4 is a partial cross-sectional view of a second variation of thesolar cell of FIG. 2. In this aspect, the negative electrode 212 is alayer conformally coating and in immediate contact with the substrate202.

Each p-type contact 206 positive electrode is a positive electrodesegment 206. Each p-type contact 206 further comprises an insulatorsegment 400 interposed between the negative electrode layer 212 and thepositive electrode segment 206. Each p-type contact 206 furthercomprises insulator sidewalls 402 overlying each insulator segment 400.The positive electrode segments 206 and the p-type semiconductorsegments 208 are formed between the insulator sidewalls 402.

FIGS. 5A through 5E are cross-sectional views depicting an exemplaryfabrication process associated with the solar cell of FIG. 3. In FIG. 5Athe positive electrode layer 206 is deposited on substrate 202 followedby a first insulation layer 500. Silicon dioxide is an example of atypical insulation material. In FIG. 5B negative electrode segments 212are formed over the first insulation layer 500. In one aspect, thenegative electrode is conformally deposited and then selectively etched.Photolithography is a commonly used process to permit the selectiveetching of materials. Following the formation of the negative electrodesegments 212, a second insulator layer 502 is formed.

In FIG. 5C the second insulator layer 502 is selectively etched over thenegative electrode segments 212, and n-type semiconductor segments 214are selectively formed over the negative electrode segments 212. Again,these processes can be performed using selective etching with the aid ofphotolithography. In FIG. 5D the first insulator 500 is selectivelyetched to expose the positive electrode layer 216 between the n-typecontacts 210, resulting in the formation of the p-type contacts 206,insulator segments 300, and insulator sidewalls 302. In FIG. 5E thehybrid organic/inorganic perovskite 216 is deposited to form solar cell200.

Although not explicitly shown, the fabrication process for the solarcell of FIG. 4 would be essentially the same, with the difference beingin the order in which the electrode and semiconductor materials aredeposited.

FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a first method for forming a backcontact perovskite solar cell. Although the method is depicted as asequence of numbered steps for clarity, the numbering does notnecessarily dictate the order of the steps. It should be understood thatsome of these steps may be skipped, performed in parallel, or performedwithout the requirement of maintaining a strict order of sequence.Generally however, the method follows the numeric order of the depictedsteps and is related to the description of FIGS. 5A through 5E. Themethod starts at Step 600.

Step 602 provides a substrate. For example, the substrate may be anintrinsic semiconductor material such as silicon, or an insulator suchas silicon dioxide. Step 604 conformally coats the substrate with apositive electrode layer. Step 606 conformally coats the positiveelectrode layer with a first insulator layer. Step 608 selectivelydeposits a plurality of negative electrode segments overlying the firstinsulator layer. Step 610 conformally deposits a second insulator layeroverlying the negative electrode segments and first insulator layer.Step 612 selectively etches the second insulator layer to expose thenegative electrode segments. Step 614 selectively deposits an n-typesemiconductor overlying each exposed negative electrode segment to formn-type contacts. Step 616 selectively etches the first and secondinsulator layers to expose positive electrode segments between then-type contacts. Step 618 selectively deposits a p-type semiconductoroverlying each exposed positive electrode segment to form p-typecontacts. Step 620 conformally deposits a hybrid organic/inorganicperovskite layer overlying the p-type and n-type contacts. In oneaspect, the hybrid organic/inorganic perovskite isCH₃NH₃Pbl_(3-X)Cl_(X). However, as noted above, the perovskite may beselected from a broader range of materials.

The n-type semiconductor may be zinc oxide (ZnO), tin oxide (SnO₂),niobium oxide (Nb₂O₅), tantalum oxide (Ta₂O₅), barium titanate (BaTiO₃),strontium titanate (SrTiO₃), zinc titanate (ZnTiO₃), and copper titanate(CuTiO₃), or titanium oxide (TiO₂). These oxides may be in astoichiometric, non-stoichiometric, and doped form. The p-typesemiconductor may be stoichiometric oxides or non-stoichiometric oxides,such as molybdenum oxide (MoO₃), nickel oxide (NiO), vanadium oxide(V₂O₅), copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O). and tungsten oxide (WO₃). The n- andp-type electrodes may formed from the materials described above, and arenot repeated here in the interest of brevity.

FIG. 7 is a flowchart illustrating a second method for forming a backcontact perovskite solar cell. The method starts at Step 700. Step 702provides a substrate, and Step 704 conformally coats the substrate witha negative electrode layer. Step 706 conformally coats the negativeelectrode layer with a first insulator layer. Step 708 selectivelydeposits a plurality of positive electrode segments overlying the firstinsulator layer. Step 710 conformally deposits a second insulator layeroverlying the positive electrode segments and first insulator layer.Step 712 selectively etches the second insulator layer to expose thepositive electrode segments. Step 714 selectively deposits a p-typesemiconductor overlying each exposed positive electrode segment to formp-type contacts. Step 716 selectively etches the first and secondinsulator layers to expose negative electrode segments between thep-type contacts. Step 718 selectively deposits an n-type semiconductoroverlying each exposed negative electrode segment to form n-typecontacts. Step 720 conformally deposits a hybrid organic/inorganicperovskite layer overlying the p-type and n-type contacts. Theelectrode, semiconductor, and perovskite materials may be as describedabove and are not repeated here in the interest of brevity.

A back contact solar cell using a hybrid organic/inorganic perovskitehas been provided, with associated fabrication methods. Examples ofparticular materials and process steps have been presented to illustratethe invention. However, the invention is not limited to merely theseexamples. Other variations and embodiments of the invention will occurto those skilled in the art.

We claim:
 1. A back contact perovskite solar cell, the solar cellcomprising: a substrate; a plurality of p-type contacts overlying thesubstrate, each p-type contact comprising: a positive electrode; ap-type semiconductor segment overlying the positive electrode; aplurality of n-type contacts overlying the substrate, each n-typecontact comprising: a negative electrode; an n-type semiconductorsegment overlying the negative electrode; and, a hybridorganic/inorganic perovskite layer overlying the p-type and n-typecontacts.
 2. The solar cell of claim 1 wherein the positive electrode isa layer conformally coating and in immediate contact with the substrate;wherein each n-type contact negative electrode is a negative electrodesegment, and each n-type contact further comprises an insulator segmentinterposed between the positive electrode layer and the negativeelectrode segment.
 3. The solar cell of claim 2 wherein each n-typecontact further comprises insulator sidewalls overlying each insulatorsegment, and wherein the negative electrode segments and the n-typesemiconductor segments are formed between the insulator sidewalk.
 4. Thesolar cell of claim 1 wherein the negative electrode is a layerconformally coating and in immediate contact with the substrate; whereineach p-type contact positive electrode is a positive electrode segment,and each p-type contact further comprises an insulator segmentinterposed between the negative electrode layer and the positiveelectrode segment.
 5. The solar cell of claim 4 wherein each p-typecontact further comprises insulator sidewalls overlying each insulatorsegment, and wherein the positive electrode segments and the p-typesemiconductor segments are formed between the insulator sidewalls. 6.The solar cell of claim 1 wherein the n-type semiconductor is selectedfrom a group consisting of zinc oxide (ZnO), tin oxide (SnO₂), niobiumoxide (Nb₂O₅), tantalum oxide (Ta₂O₅), barium titanate (BaTiO₃),strontium titanate (SrTiO₃), zinc titanate (ZnTiO₃), and copper titanate(CuTiO₃), and titanium oxide (TiO₂).
 7. The solar cell of claim 1wherein the p-type semiconductor is selected from a group consisting ofstoichiometric and non-stoichiometric oxides.
 8. The solar cell of claim7 wherein the p-type semiconductor is selected from a group consistingof molybdenum oxide (MoO₃), nickel oxide (NiO), vanadium oxide (V₂O₅),copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O), and tungsten oxide (WO₃).
 9. The solar cell ofclaim 1 wherein the negative electrode is a material selected from agroup consisting of Zn, aluminum (Al), and Ti.
 10. The solar cell ofclaim 1 wherein the positive electrode is a material selected from agroup consisting of Mo and Ni.
 11. The solar cell of claim 1 wherein thehybrid organic/inorganic perovskite layer has a general formula ofABX_(z)Y_(3-z); where “A” is an organic monocation; where B is atransition metal dication; where X and Y are inorganic monoanions; and,where Z is in a range of 0 to 1.5.
 12. The solar cell of claim 11wherein the organic monocation “A” is a substituted ammonium cation withthe general formula of R¹R²R³R⁴N; where B is selected from a groupconsisting of hydrogen, and compounds derived from linear alkanes,branched alkanes, cycloalkanes, (poly)cycloalkanes, cis- andtrans-linear alkenes, cis- and trans-branched alkenes, linear alkynes,branched alkynes, (poly)alkynes, aromatic hydrocarbons, (poly)aromatichydrocarbons, heteroarenes, (poly)heteroarenes, thiophenes,(poly)thiophenes, (poly)anilines, and combination of above-mentionedelements; where the dication B is selected from a group consisting ofPb²⁺, Sn²⁺, Cu²⁺, Ge²⁺, Zn²⁺, Ni²⁺, Fe²⁺, Mn²⁺, Eu²⁺, and Co²⁺; and,where the monoanions X and Y are independently selected from a groupconsisting of halogenides of F—, Cl—, Br—, and cyanides, andthiocyanides.
 13. The solar cell of claim 1 wherein the hybridorganic/inorganic perovskite is CH₃NH₃Pbl_(3-X)Cl_(X).
 14. A method forforming a back contact perovskite solar cell, the method comprising:providing a substrate; conformally coating the substrate with a positiveelectrode layer; conformally coating the positive electrode layer with afirst insulator layer; selectively depositing a plurality of negativeelectrode segments overlying the first insulator layer; conformallydepositing a second insulator layer overlying the negative electrodesegments and first insulator layer; selectively etching the secondinsulator layer to expose the negative electrode segments; selectivelydepositing an n-type semiconductor overlying each exposed negativeelectrode segment to form n-type contacts; selectively etching the firstand second insulator layers to expose positive electrode segmentsbetween the n-type contacts; selectively depositing a p-typesemiconductor overlying each exposed positive electrode segment to formp-type contacts; and, conformally depositing a hybrid organic/inorganicperovskite layer overlying the p-type and n-type contacts.
 15. Themethod of claim 14 wherein the hybrid. organic/inorganic perovskite isCH₃NH₃Pbl_(3-X)Cl_(X).
 16. The method of claim 14 wherein the n-typesemiconductor is selected from a group consisting of zinc oxide (ZnO),tin oxide (SnO₂), niobium oxide (Nb₂O₅), tantalum oxide (Ta₂O₅), bariumtitanate (BaTiO₃), strontium titanate (SrTiO₃), zinc titanate (ZnTiO₃),and copper titanate (CuTiO₃), and titanium oxide (TiO₂).
 17. The methodcell of claim 14 wherein the p-type semiconductor is selected from agroup consisting of stoichiometric oxides, non-stoichiometric oxides,molybdenum oxide (MoO₃), nickel oxide (NiO), vanadium oxide (V₂O₅),copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O), and tungsten oxide (WO₃).
 18. A method forforming a back contact perovskite solar cell, the method comprising:providing a substrate; conformally coating the substrate with a negativeelectrode layer; conformally coating the negative electrode layer with afirst insulator layer; selectively depositing a plurality of positiveelectrode segments overlying the first insulator layer; conformallydepositing a second insulator layer overlying the positive electrodesegments and first insulator layer; selectively etching the secondinsulator layer to expose the positive electrode segments; selectivelydepositing a p-type semiconductor overlying each exposed positiveelectrode segment to form p-type contacts; selectively etching the firstand second insulator layers to expose negative electrode segmentsbetween the p-type contacts; selectively depositing an n-typesemiconductor overlying each exposed negative electrode segment to formn-type contacts; and, conformally depositing a hybrid organic/inorganicperovskite layer overlying the p-type and n-type contacts.
 19. Themethod of claim 18 wherein the hybrid. organic/inorganic perovskite isCH₃NH₃Pbl_(3-X)Cl_(X).
 20. The method of claim 18 wherein the n-typesemiconductor is selected from a group consisting of zinc oxide (ZnO),tin oxide (SnO₂), niobium oxide (Nb₂O₅), tantalum oxide (Ta₂O₅), bariumtitanate (BaTiO₃), strontium titanate (SrTiO₃), zinc titanate (ZnTiO₃),and copper titanate (CuTiO₃), and titanium oxide (TiO₂).
 21. The methodof claim 18 wherein the p-type semiconductor is selected from a groupconsisting of stoichiometric oxides, non-stoichiometric oxides,molybdenum oxide (MoO₃), nickel oxide (NiO), vanadium oxide (V₂O₅),copper(I) oxide (Cu₂O), and tungsten oxide (WO₃).